1968, Pulitzer Prize

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SUMMARY: The following essay revolves around the success of Momaday’s House Made of Dawn. It tries to identify how exactly he achieved success and why at this precise moment in history, as previous Native American authors were not so fortunate. The main reason behind establishing this information is to determine what the author consequently does with this opportunity.

 

As most people are aware Native Americans have had a very difficult time since the European invasion in 1492, however, in the last century or so, laws have come to pass to see inequalities levelled out. Especially since the Second World War, great changes have taken place in much of the Western world, and the Native American issues are no exception to this. Their voices have become more potent in law and perhaps as a consequence in literature as well. Several writers had already dedicated their works to biographical novels, dividing numbers almost equally between the nineteenth century and the twentieth century before the Second World War. However, none managed to encourage other Natives to write and it was not until N. Scott Momaday’s House Made of Dawn (1968) that outsiders took an interest in Native American authors. The interest was so wide spread that the novel became the first by a Native author to win a Pulitzer Prize. This essay will try to piece together how exactly Momaday achieved this success after so much marginalization from the dominant white Americans. Also, the authenticity demonstrated in the novel compared to actual events will be explored to see how much modification reality needs to undergo to be accepted by the general public. This is not only an issue for the actual plot of the novel but also for the themes raised so as not to offend the reader.

 

House Made of Dawn’s parallel story to history

 

Interestingly, the novel itself is parallel to historical fact. It centres on a true event “a case of homicide in Jemez Pueblo” according to Floyd C. Watkins which “indicates the authenticity and credibility of the novel” (p139). This incident is what mirrors so many Indians’ lives, as it causes the protagonist to leave his village and go into city life. In America, the years shortly before the novel was published saw migration at its greatest, according to Watkins “the urban Indian’s adaption to city life is the most typical and fundamental cultural experience in modern American life. Between 1945 and 1968 tens of millions of Americans moved to the city. This migration has been called “the greatest movement of human beings in history””(p159). This being so, could mean that although the novel was written in specific accordance to Indians, the theme of moving from town to city is more universally understood. It was now not only something that the Natives were going through, but a displacement from home for many different types of backgrounds. However, the way in which the main event takes place could be what softens the blow for the rest of the story. From this moment on, every unfortunate experience that the protagonist endures is due to his own course of action, including being sent to prison. This is unlike the greater part of reality, where the Indians’ departure from their homes was more a case of the American belief of the Natives’ inferiority. As a consequence this factor needed to be eliminated; hence in the story they were made to leave their villages, especially as young children, to have an American education. Here, what the author has astutely done is to choose a reason for the departure that does not reflect badly on Americans. Also, it must not be forgotten that the separation from his homeland is due to a homicide, and perhaps the novel could be interpreted as the protagonist receiving his due. Inverting reality in this form could be an important reason as to why the novel found success, given that it not only remains true to a historic event as the murder actually took place, but there really were departures due to this circumstance. Also to reinforce this, the novel shows more a story of justice, which is an American favourite, rather than injustice against the Indians. Yet another element that may have contributed to the novel’s success was the new found curiosity for Native cultures as people became interested in documenting the European invasion from the Natives' point of view. Guidance was now being followed from their literature as it was said by Watkins that “there is no difference at all between the way Momaday wrote the old stories, and the way he remembers them” (p161). This permitted historians to achieve insight into Indian cultures without so much direct contact, which was helpful as there was a lot of friction between the two sides. As a result, it could be said that it was the change in white American’s mentality that brought success to this genre. Although by extension, perhaps it is due more to the lack of new information on the invasion from an American point of view, and therefore, writers were looking for new material to publish turning to the opposing side. This occurred especially now that Native American legal issues were coming into the public eye and interest was on the rise to discover how the situation stood.

 

How the novel found success through advancements made in law

 

Another indication as to why this success took place towards the end of the 60s is due to the circumstance the confrontation existed to begin with. The problem was that European invaders never listened, so the solutions to problems were never the Indians’ own. However, around this time people became more tolerant towards other cultures which was a stepping stone for the Natives to begin to learn how to communicate with Americans according to Howard Meredith, concluding that although their message was the same it was done more effectively (p53/54). The advancement of effective communication was paired together with an unfortunate but decisive episode. In 1961 Meredith sites that a fishing incident existed and that when taken to court it revived American Indian awareness. All tribes soon followed suit demanding “their treaty rights, and took active responsibility for programs and institutions that directly affected their life” and at the same time “American Indian organizations attempted to provide a sense of community for those who had been relocated into large metropolitan areas” (p60). This resulted in the extension of the Civil Rights Act to American Indians in 1968, in an attempt to diminish racial and religious discrimination especially concerning housing rights. The new found freedom that came from these events gave writers the opportunity to, although as seen above carefully, express their opinions and concerns in their writing and be heard. It is evident that they were not completely free to convey their ideas perhaps as they would have liked, but as in Momaday's case they raised important issues all the same. If a broad perspective is to be taken into account, according to Watkins the novel introduces the themes of “a man’s loss of tradition, past, community, nature, fellow man, and religion” (p134). These are all relevant to Indian cultural issues even today, as little by little the Americans are overpowering the younger generations' will to belong to ethnic minorities. What Momaday accomplishes is to bring attention to the fact that these limitations have taken place simply due to American wishes. Past events and their injustices are brought into a new light by trying to show the new generations that in actual fact they should not be ashamed of their heritage. It is in schools that they learn of their inferiority in American eyes and the treatment that they receive from peers ingrains it into their minds. The problems between adolescents can be seen by the 1969 suicide rates linked to the treatment received in schools. Meredith cites that in the same year, reports were given that “the adolescent suicide rate at such places as the Shoshone-Bannock Reservation at Fort Hall, Idaho, and the Quinault Reservation in Washington, were ten times the national average” (p63).

 

How Native Americans use literature to voice their opinions and concerns

 

In his novel, Momaday also brings attention to ceremonies and traditional events that are being lost over time. With his protagonist, Abel, he chooses a character for him which according to Watkins was “based on several persons” (p153) from his childhood. It was a personality that was already on the decline away from his heritage even though he was brought up in his village. He shows uneasiness towards nature or at least towards their eagle capture ceremonies as for him it represented the limitations of his own freedom. Perhaps due to a more American way of thinking that he had also attained, he rebuffed two key factors of his culture in one go: firstly, a tradition that usually recognises their coming of age, and secondly, nature in itself as his wishes were to distance himself. Momaday’s intentions here were most likely to start highlighting the American influences on Indian culture that led to them disappearing. Possibly, the main concern with the evaporation of cultural practises was not exactly the worry about change. Change may be acceptable especially if it still represents the same ideals, but the problem appears to be that there is no replacement of beliefs at all. When one asks: What am I becoming in place of what my heritage should have made me? It would seem that the answer is: nothing of equal value. Therefore, Momaday is fighting against not only the emptiness that they are left with but also the knowledge that it is happening. As a consequence of this, Watkins names the narrow perspective of the novel as “Abel not being able to find a place for himself,” (p134) a tragic outcome many are now living. Other traditions are also slowly being abandoned as a result of American influence. In spite of popularity with previous generations “old-timers say interest in rooster-pulls is declining [as] more men stay on their jobs instead of taking the day off,” (Watkins, p153). This therefore brings awareness to the sad fact that now Indians are more moved by money than they have ever been. Of course they may be forced to work by modern day conditions, but this is most likely no truer than it was a century ago. Also, Watkins goes on to say that nowadays there is mostly young boys’ participation, indicating that what was once tradition is now being used for entertainment purposes in free time.

 

Another angle that Momaday takes is that of contrasting Indian villages with American cities. As previously stated there is a strong presence of emptiness associated with big cities and a feeling of nature and history connected with villages. The novel starts with the earliest memories of the various Native characters focusing above all on their relationship with nature. As the novel progresses it takes more focus on Abel, sighting most memorably the various fights he gets into once he has moved to Los Angeles. By doing so the reader is constantly reminded of how much his life has deteriorated and living in “The city of Angels” the strongest connection one can make is to associate him with a fallen angel. In making such a prominent difference between the two life styles, the reader may doubt the legitimacy of the author’s opinion of cities. However, it is the contrast itself that makes cities look quite so exempt of sentiment and therefore may make the criticism more creditable.

 

Skilful penmanship can provoke readers into sympathizing with Indians and achieve support for their freedom and equality. Momaday certainly takes advantage of this tactic by presenting a tragedy for “modern Americans [whose] place and culture are vanishing” (Watkins, p158), by gaining their compassion, he is aiding in preventing further cultural loss and misinterpretation of customs.

 

What has the novel's influence been since 1969?

 

In 1969 House Made of Dawn won the Pulitzer Prize, an event that has had a dramatic affect on the amount of similar works published since. Given that “to date Indian poets and novelists are generally unknown outside tribal circles” according to Kenneth Lincoln (p207), it is surprising that within just a few years this came to change. Lincoln continues by saying “Indian poets, gathered since 1975 […] to help to correct the image of lost, forgotten, or silent Native voices,” and it is these voices that were then heard by so much of the world. After various attempts at different movements, Indian activists made their “most significant act [with] the Indian Self Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. […] This codified Indian policy made a revolutionary turn as it provided Indian voice and vote and a real involvement in management of programs and funds” (Meredith, p66). Together both authors and activists have created awareness of the harsh treatment Natives were receiving, and between them and the pressure from the general public, they have achieved a stabilized status. Although discrimination still continues today, they are at least protected from the side of the law. However, their principal concern will always remain their right to be self-governed and have the freedom to practice their beliefs.

 

The consequences of moving villagers to big cities

 

The removal of anyone from their hometown is disorientating enough, but to move villagers from their place of comfort where they are at one with their surroundings is tragic. Regretfully this is the case for Indians, going from living a natural life where the only real machinery they encountered was for agricultural purposes, to being relocated in the impersonal ways of the city, most commonly filling the lowest paid jobs in factories. One can only expect this to have negative consequences on the individuals that get sent away, and although not always forced into taking this plan of action, sometimes they were not left with much of a choice. Then when faced with the cruelty of the city, so far from what was familiar, many cases were overtaken by the pressure.

 

Watkins suggests that the “metropolitan confronts characters with worlds they can not influence or modify. The consequences are rebellion and violence.” (p133). If we are to believe that the voice of Abel is a genuine reality, given that Watkins also states “probably Momaday has followed his own experience in the novel as much as he has his sources,” (p139) then one can see how his original statement could be correct. Momaday fills the second half of the novel, save the end, with violent life threatening fights. Although they are most likely due to drunkenness and inner rebellion, violence is present all the same, and now shows a cultural shift from confrontations in battle to pub brawls. However, the inner fight the protagonist has as he feels he does not belong is in a sense as Watkins suggested, confrontation with a world he cannot modify, and when failing at life in the city and feeling detachment to all else, he rebelliously turns to drinking.

 

Upon eventually returning to their village (something that Abel does when hearing of his grandfather’s state), Indians invariably turn to “alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and gloom” (Watkins, p135). Sometimes this failure has been known to originate from the prejudice of others, but whatever the cause, it means that those who do not succumb to drinking in the city will inevitably do so upon their return home.

 

Another part of the issue may be ‘people acting out of kindness’, as truly it seems the Indians would have been best left alone to cater for themselves, managing much better had they stayed in their villages. But it was thought that removing them and separating them from their homes would enhance their situation and give them a ’real’ opportunity in life. As it is indicated in the conclusion by Watkins, “Abel suffered because of forces which are not even intentionally hostile to him and his culture. Indeed, those who wish to relocate the Indians and other men in a metropolitan world act in the names of education and progress.” (p170).

 

Over the centuries, according to Meredith, it is said that “the Indian[s were] never silent” (p153), they were always trying to defend their rights. It could be said that today publishing literature is their modern-day means to fight in a time where physical confrontation is obsolete. Writing could be the best way to reach out to others and make themselves heard, given that their way of life is more likely “to be destroyed by modernity […] than violence” (Watkins, p134). House Made of Dawn has already opened doors to take action against this, above all with the appealing way in which it was written. Its capacity to inform people of their situation and misfortunes instead of criticising the enemy should be commended. It says a lot about the way the Indian tribes work, they do not look for confrontation but peace and equality. As previously mentioned, the novel also had very fortunate timing for its publication, just when all of America was experiencing the consequences of mass immigration, Momaday brought this novel into view. A reader’s understanding about a topic is critical when looking to bring about awareness and this timing permitted a certain amount of identification.

 

It has been said by Duane Champagne that “it is possible that changes occur differently in cultural, moral, political and economical relations” (p217). It is difficult overall to indicate to what extent this may be true but it does seem plausible that it is applicable to this situation. Slowly cultural acceptance has come about although not to the point where people are consciously merging, but freedom is generally wanted for all by all. Political changes have certainly seen a complicated road, and although they coincide quite neatly with cultural acceptance, written law is still more developed than its practise. As mentioned by David Reed Miller “negative self images for Indians and racial misunderstandings are still fuelled by schools teaching stereotypes of Indian history and culture” (p239). Although this is lamentable, one hopes that some day this novel will creep into the school syllabus and teach the American children of today about a part of history that influences their daily lives. This is happily a realistic goal, as much of the success of the novel is due to non-Natives’ interest in their background.

 

The success that House Made of Dawn has brought to Native American literature has created a permanent spot for the genre and influenced many other authors to document their lives. The most thrilling aspect about this is that as more authors relate their stories, they will make a wider range of texts available for analysis, giving a more rounded version of history as people look to find out about cultural traditions firsthand.

 

Champagne, D. “Change, Continuity, and Variation in Native American Societies as a Response to Conquest.” Violence, Resistance, and Survival in the Americas: Native Americans and the Legacy of Conquest, edited by W. B. Taylor, and F. Pease, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994, pp. 208-225.

Lincoln, K. Native American Renaissance. University of California Press, 1983.

Meredith, Howard. A Short History of the Native Americans in the US. Florida, Krieger Publishing Company, 2001.

Miller, D. R. “Definitional Violence and Plains Indian Reservation Life: Ongoing Challenges to Survival.” Violence, Resistance, and Survival in the Americas: Native Americans and the Legacy of Conquest, edited by W. B. Taylor, and F. Pease, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994, pp. 226-248.

Momaday, N. Scott. House Made of Dawn. USA, Harper Perennial, 2010.

Swidler, Nina, Dongoske, Kurt E., Anyon, Roger, Downer, Alan S., editors. Native Americans and Archaeologists Stepping Stones to Common Ground. Walnut Creek, AltaMira Press, 1997.

Watkins, Floyd C. In Time and Place: Some Origins of American Fiction. Athens, University of Georgia Press, 1977.